Story of two seas in Kazakhstan: Water rights as human rights
By Dilraba Anayatova
In Kazakhstan, two seas tells the story of a nation caught between past and present, ideology and economy, nature and industry. Once a shimmering jewel in Central Asia, the Aral Sea stands as a graveyard of Soviet communism’s ambition—a body of water sacrificed for cotton fields. To the west, the Caspian Sea, cradling immense biodiversity and oil wealth, faces its own reckoning under 21st-century capitalism. These waters, which once sustained communities, have become arenas of struggle and survival, revealing how systems of power reshape landscapes and devastate local communities.
This is not merely an environmental story—it’s a human rights crisis. Around the drying Aral, families were displaced, their livelihoods erased, and their health sacrificed to toxic dust. Along the Caspian’s shores, oil rigs pump fortunes while nearby villages with living beings choke on polluted air and contaminated water. From communist irrigation schemes to capitalist oil pipelines, humans and non-humans of Kazakhstan have endured the consequences of decisions that prioritize profit and production over their well-being.
Author's note: This blog examines the fates of these two seas, exploring how water in Kazakhstan has become both a victim of systemic exploitation and a symbol of resistance. It poses the question: Can we envision a future where human rights and ecological justice flow as freely as the rivers that once nourished these waters?
The Aral Sea: A symbol of exploitation
The Soviet legacy of massive natural resource extraction (1917–1991) has left profound and lasting environmental scars on Kazakhstan. The Virgin Land campaign, which transformed vast territories into agricultural productivity machines, led to severe soil degradation and loss of biodiversity. The Semey nuclear testing site suffered extreme radioactive pollution, impacting both the environment and human health. Meanwhile, the Baikonur Cosmodrome, still operating, became a major launch site during the Cold War, creating ongoing pollution and ecological disruption.
Once a thriving ecosystem, the Aral Sea has been devastated by decades of mismanagement that started during the Tsarist era (1731–1917) and exacerbated because of Stalin’s project of “remodelling nature” (1948–1953). Remodelling nature included over-irrigation for cotton cultivation and the diversion of rivers, leading to its dramatic shrinkage and the salinization of the surrounding soil. By 1980, the Soviet Union became the world’s second-largest cotton exporter. However, this achievement came at a steep price: the lake’s surface area shrank by 41%, and its volume dropped by 61%, eventually reaching reductions of 74% and 90%, respectively. Even if this pattern of man-made environmental degradation as a trade-off for optimizing production is implemented under a communist state, it is consistent with the reasoning usually associated with capitalist extraction.
In the wake of this disaster, the Aral Sea region suffers from severe poverty, compounded by the loss of livelihoods in fishing and farming. For example, fish species have declined from 32 to just six due to high salinity, which is now double the normal level, further degrading the soil and perpetuating desertification. Only half of the native birds and mammals have survived, and their numbers are still declining as the lake has receded by 100 kilometers. This environmental tragedy has far-reaching consequences, significantly impacting local communities.
Soviet Union’s water mismanagement caused local populations to face severe health issues, including respiratory illnesses, throat and esophageal cancer, and digestive disorders caused by breathing and ingesting salt-laden air and water. Liver and kidney ailments, eye problems, and general malnutrition are also common. In addition, the most dangerous legacy from the Soviet era is the island where biological weapons were secretly developed . This island is now connected to the mainland, creating the potential for viruses to spread, which could affect not only the humans living in the area but also plants and animals (read more here).
The Caspian Sea: A contemporary parallel
Unlike the Aral Sea, which is in a state of disrepair, the Caspian Sea continues to be a vibrant center of economic activity today. As the largest inland body of water in the world, the Caspian Sea is extremely unique both biologically and ecologically; its health is vital for mitigating worsening land degradation, especially in light of the environmental devastation of the Aral Sea. Climate change in general, and human activities in particular, contribute to the shrinking of the sea. In one study, researchers employed various models to predict how climate change and human activities could impact water levels. By 2100, due to climate change, water levels could drop by 8 to 30 meters (26 to 98 feet). Additionally, human activities such as water usage and diversion for agricultural or industrial purposes significantly contribute to water loss. Taking these factors into account, scientists estimate an additional 7 meters (23 feet) of water loss, further exacerbating the crisis.
First, let’s talk about the water itself. “Ten years ago, we would swim about 200 meters to reach those rocks,” recalled Azamat Sarsenbayev, an environmental activist and native of Aktau, Kazakhstan. “Now we are standing on top of them.” His lived experience highlights stark differences and rapid changes in the environmental landscape. A photo from the author’s personal gallery from 2021 also depicts those rocks.
Importantly, the flora and fauna are truly unique to the sea, having been isolated for millions of years. However, many species are at risk of extinction due to hunting and pollution. The unique population of Caspian seals has declined from one million in the early 20th century to just 300 today. Furthermore, 90% of the world’s sturgeon find their home in this sea. Several species that are unique to the Caspian Sea have been named to reflect their origin, including the Caspian tern, Caspian gull, Caspian turtle, Caspian seal, Caspian whitefish, and Caspian salmon, emphasizing the ecological uniqueness of the region's biodiversity.
This memory illustrates the alarming retreat of the Caspian Sea. In point of fact, NASA's Earth Observatory recently highlighted the alarming changes in the Caspian Sea's coastline with a striking comparison of satellite images from 2006 and 2022. The images, captured by Landsat satellites, vividly illustrate the receding shoreline, a consequence of rising temperatures and increased evaporation driven by climate change. The shrinking sea, particularly severe in Kazakhstan’s shallow section, has prompted officials to declare a state of emergency in Aktau this summer, aiming to hasten efforts to mitigate the environmental crisis. These efforts underscore the severe consequences looming not in a distant future but directly on the region’s horizon.
Efforts to reverse the damage
After Kazakhstan gained independence in 1991, some had hoped for intense care to mitigate the damage; however, the exploitative relationship between the people and the land has only intensified in the Caspian Sea, with rapid increases in fossil fuel production and the resulting accelerated climate change. Today, oil extraction and processing release harmful substances like crude oil, gas condensates, and drilling fluids into the environment. These pollutants contaminate the soil and water, disrupting the delicate balance of flora and fauna in nature.
On the other hand, communities around the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan, along with governance bodies and international organizations, are working to mitigate the damage. Projects to revive water levels, improve irrigation systems, build dams, and plant shrubs have shown promise in reducing soil degradation and pollution. However, without Uzbekistan cutting back on its cotton production, the restoration of the entire Aral Sea remains uncertain and impossible.
Water is life, and it is not only a resource to be used and abused. The devastation of the Aras and Caspian Seas illustrates how disrupting intricate ecosystems violates human rights and the rights of the more-than-human world. Recognizing water as a shared responsibility is imperative. If we fail to act, we will not only lose water but also the future in which all beings exist in interconnected and interdependent communities.
